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{{short description|Age difference between
{{redirect-distinguish|May-December romance|May December|May to December}}
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In [[sexual relationship]]s, concepts of '''age disparity''', including what defines an age disparity, have developed over time and vary among societies. Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from partner availability, gender roles, and evolutionary mating strategies, and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross-culturally. There are also [[social theories]] for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for 'alternative' age-hypogamous relationships. Age-disparate relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependent on sociocultural norms and [[legal systems]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Engle |first=Gigi |date=May 21, 2021 |title=Why Are We So Obsessed With Age Gaps in Relationships? |url=https://www.thebody.com/article/age-gaps-relationships/ |website=TheBody}}</ref>
== Statistics (heterosexual) ==
{{Bar chart| float=center
| title = Age difference in
| label_type = Age difference
| data_type = Percentage of all married couples
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| label5 = Husband 4–5 years older than wife
| label6 = Husband 2–3 years older than wife
| label7 = Husband and wife within
| label8 = Wife 2–3 years older than husband
| label9 = Wife 4–5 years older than husband
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Data in Australia<ref>{{cite web|title=Distribution of the Difference in Age Between Couples at First Marriage(a), 1974 and 1995|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/a8d1bea8a2ff1b33ca2570ec001b0dc3!OpenDocument|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=27 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826065609/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/a8d1bea8a2ff1b33ca2570ec001b0dc3!OpenDocument|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=live|date=19 June 1997}}</ref> and the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Ben |last2=Smallwood |first2=Steve |date=2008 |title=Age differences at marriage and divorce |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/population-trends-rd/population-trends/no--132--summer-2008/age-differences-at-marriage-and-divorce.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924124615/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/population-trends-rd/population-trends/no--132--summer-2008/age-differences-at-marriage-and-divorce.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=27 December 2014 |journal=Population Trends |issue=132 |pages=17–25 |publisher=Office for National Statistics|pmid=18700520 }}</ref> show a similar pattern.
Most
In August 2010, Michael Dunn of the [[University of Wales Institute, Cardiff]], completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in
A 2011 study suggested that marriage of younger men by women is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for the woman, though married individuals generally still have longer lifespans than singles.<ref name="Ian Sample">{{cite news|author=Ian Sample |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/may/12/marrying-younger-man-woman-mortality |title=Marrying a younger man increases a woman's mortality rate | Science |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref>
==Reasons for age disparity (heterosexual)==
There are complex and diverse reasons that people enter into age-disparate relationships, and a recent review in the ''[[Journal of Family Theory and Review]]'' showed vast differences across contexts.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=McKenzie |first=Lara |date=2021 |title=Age-dissimilar couple relationships: 25 years in review |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12427 |journal=Journal of Family Theory and Review |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=496–514 |doi=10.1111/jftr.12427 |url-access=subscription |via= |s2cid=237797836}}</ref> Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the [[rational choice
In a [[Brown University]] study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor.<ref name="Casterline">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/0032472031000142296 |title=The Age Difference Between Spouses: Variations among Developing Countries|year=1986|last1=Casterline|first1=John|last2=Williams|first2=Lindy|last3=McDonald|first3=Peter|journal=Population Studies|volume=40|issue=3|page=353}}</ref> One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges. These differences may be sexual, financial or social. [[Gender roles]] may complicate this even further. Socially, a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship.<ref name="sugardaddystereo">{{cite journal|jstor=3649496|pages=6–14|last1=Luke|first1=N.|title=Confronting the 'Sugar Daddy' Stereotype: Age and Economic Asymmetries and Risky Sexual Behavior in Urban Kenya|volume=31|issue=1|journal=International Family Planning Perspectives|year=2005|doi=10.1363/3100605|pmid=15888404}}</ref>
Although the "[[Cougar (slang)|cougar]]" trend, in which older women date much younger men, is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture, at least one academic study has found the concept to be a "myth". A British psychological study published in ''[[Evolution and Human Behavior]]'' in 2010 concluded that
== Evolutionary perspective ==
=== Evolutionary approach to heterosexual age disparity in sexual relationships ===
The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of [[Charles Darwin]], attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of [[natural selection]] and [[sexual selection]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Darwin | first1 = C | year = 1871 | title = The descent of man | journal = The Great Books of the Western World | volume = 49 | page = 320 }}</ref><ref>Darwin, C. (1859). ''On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection''</ref> Within sexual selection, [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences ([[sexual dimorphism]]): [[intrasexual selection]] (involves competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and [[Sexual selection|intersexual choice]] (discriminative choice of mating partners).<ref name=":11">{{cite journal | last1 = Geary | first1 = D. C. | last2 = Vigil | first2 = J. | last3 = Byrd-Craven | first3 = J. | year = 2004 | title = Evolution of human mate choice | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 41 | issue = 1| pages = 27–42 | doi=10.1080/00224490409552211| pmid = 15216422 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.309.1692 | s2cid = 6848381 }}</ref> [[Life history theory]]<ref>Yampolsky, Lev Y(Jul 2003) Life History Theory. In: eLS. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. http://www.els.net {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513234028/http://www.els.net/ |date=13 May 2011 }} {{doi|10.1038/npg.els.0003219}}</ref> (that includes [[Parental Investment]] Theory)<ref name=":9">Robert, T. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. ''Sexual Selection & the Descent of Man, Aldine de Gruyter, New York'', 136–179.</ref> provides an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals, leading to age disparity in relationships. Life history theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task cannot be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stearns | first1 = S. C. | s2cid = 12286875 | year = 2000 | title = Life history evolution: successes, limitations, and prospects | journal = Naturwissenschaften | volume = 87 | issue = 11| pages = 476–486 | doi=10.1007/s001140050763| pmid = 11151666 | bibcode = 2000NW.....87..476S }}</ref>
Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment. The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex.<ref name=":9"/> This theory predicts both [[Intrasexual competition (disambiguation)|intrasexual]] selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment; typically there is [[competition]] among members of the lower investing sex (generally males) over the parental investment of the higher investing sex (generally females) who will be more selective in their mate choice. However, human males tend to have more parental investment than do other mammal males (although females still tend to have more parental investment).<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | last1 = Bjorklund | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Shackelford | first2 = T. K. | year = 1999 | title = Differences in parental investment contribute to important differences between men and women | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 8 | issue = 3| pages = 86–89 | doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00020| s2cid = 39325238 }}</ref> Thus, both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices. These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences. For example, different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the partner's sex at those ages.<ref name=":9"/>
A study conducted by [[David Buss]] investigated
===
[[David Buss|Buss]] attributed the male preference for younger females to certain youthful cues. In females, relative youth and apparent physical attractiveness (which males valued more than females did) demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity.<ref name=":8"/> Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid-20s.<ref name=":8"/> From a [[life history theory]] perspective, females that display these cues are judged to be more capable of reproductive investment.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | last1 = Buss | first1 = D. M. | last2 = Barnes | first2 = M. | year = 1986 | title = Preferences in human mate selection | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 50 | issue = 3| page = 559 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.559}}</ref> This notion of age preference due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, and Cornelius's study, which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than they are, there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own. Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than they are.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kenrick | first1 = D. | last2 = Keefe | first2 = R. | last3 = Gabrielidis | first3 = C. | last4 = Cornelius | first4 = J. | year = 1996 | title = Adolescents' Age Preferences for Dating Partners: Support for an Evolutionary Model of Life-History Strategies | journal = Child Development | volume = 67 | issue = 4| pages = 1499–1511 | doi=10.2307/1131714| jstor = 1131714 | pmid = 8890497 }}</ref>
Buss and Schmitt<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | last1 = Buss | first1 = D. M. | last2 = Schmitt | first2 = D. P. | year = 1993 | title = Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating | url = https://www.academia.edu/download/1616706/sexual_strategies_theory_1993.pdf | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 100 | issue = 2 | pages = 204–32 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204 | pmid = 8483982 }}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> stress that although long-term mating relationships are common for humans, there are both short-term and long-term mating relationships. Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory that describes the two sexes as having evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie the strategies for short- and long-term mating. This theory is directly relevant and compatible with those two already mentioned, [[Life history theory|Life History]] and [[Parental investment|Parental Investment]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kenrick | first1 = D. T. | last2 = Keefe | first2 = R. C. | year = 1992 | title = Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 75–91 | doi=10.1017/s0140525x00067595| s2cid = 145276497 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite journal | last1 = Schmitt | first1 = D. P. | last2 = Shackelford | first2 = T. K. | last3 = Buss | first3 = D. M. | year = 2001 | title = Are men really more'oriented'toward short-term mating than women? A critical review of theory and research | journal = Psychology, Evolution & Gender | volume = 3 | issue = 3| pages = 211–239 | doi=10.1080/14616660110119331}}</ref> Males tend to appear oriented towards short-term mating (greater desire for short-term mates than women, prefer larger number of sexual partners, and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse)<ref name=":6" /> and this appears to solve a number of [[Adaptive behavior|adaptive]] problems including using fewer resources to access a mate.<ref name=":5" /> Although there are a number of reproductive advantages to short-term mating, males still pursue long-term mates, and this is due to the possibility of monopolizing a female's lifetime reproductive resources.<ref name=":5" /> Consistent with findings, for both short-term and long-term mates, males prefer younger females (reproductively valuable).<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7">{{cite journal | last1 = Young | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Critelli | first2 = J. W. | last3 = Keith | first3 = K. W. | year = 2005 | title = Male age preferences for short-term and long-term mating | journal = Sexualities, Evolution & Gender | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 83–93 | doi=10.1080/14616660500035090}}</ref>
===
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright"
|+Table 1. Regional singulate mean age of marriage (SMAM) difference between males and females<ref name=":0" />
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''[[Dataclysm]]'', a book by [[Christian Rudder]] based on data
== Cross-cultural differences (heterosexual) ==
Cross-culturally, research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females, and females with older males
The [[United Nations Statistical Commission|United Nations]] Marriage Statistics Department measures the
=== Larger than average age-gaps ===
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! Country
! SMAM difference
! [[Legal status of polygamy
|-
|Cameroon <sup>a</sup>
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|Not Criminalised
|}
However, in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between
Table 2 shows that 17 of the 20 countries with the largest age-gaps between
=== Smaller than average age-gaps ===
In Western societies such as the US and Europe, there is a trend of smaller age-gaps between spouses, reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3.3 years. Using the same pathogen-stress model, there is a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas, and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival. Additionally, it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market, and polygamy is illegal throughout most industrialized countries, while in less developed countries it is more likely to be accepted (polygamy is most common in the "polygamy belt" region in West and Central Africa).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/12/07/polygamy-is-rare-around-the-world-and-mostly-confined-to-a-few-regions/ | title=Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions | date=7 December 2020 }}</ref> The average age difference between husband and wife is 6.4 years in polygamous countries, compared to only 2.8 years in monogamous countries.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/498049 | jstor=10.1086/498049 | doi=10.1086/498049 | title=Polygyny, Fertility, and Savings | date=2005 | last1=Tertilt | first1=Michèle | journal=Journal of Political Economy | volume=113 | issue=6 | pages=1341–1371 | s2cid=17124310 }}</ref>
As access to education increases worldwide, the age of marriage increases with it, with more of the youth staying in education for longer. The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25, and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries, however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries. In some countries in Europe such as France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, Estonia, Finland and Denmark, 20–30% of women aged 20–34 are cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fn.no/content/download/22564/207111/file/World
In regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America there is a lower SMAM difference than expected; however, there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions; 24% in Brazil, 20% in Nicaragua and 18% in Dominican Republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/worldswomen/WW_full%20report_color.pdf|title=World's Women Report 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219200700/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/worldswomen/WW_full%20report_color.pdf|archive-date=19 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
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== Social perspectives ==
=== Social structural origin theory in heterosexual age disparity in sexual relationships ===
Social structural origin theory argues that the underlying cause of sex-differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society. It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person's self-concept and personality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Feingold|first=A|year=1994|title=Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=116|issue=3|pages=429–456|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.429|pmid=7809307|s2cid=13393327}}</ref> In a [[Brown University]] study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor, challenging evolutionary explanations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luke|first=N|year=2005|title=Confronting the 'Sugar Daddy' Stereotype: Age and Economic Asymmetries and Risky Sexual Behavior in Urban Kenya|journal=International Family Planning Perspectives|volume=31|issue=1|pages=6–14|doi=10.1363/3100605|pmid=15888404}}</ref> In regard to mate selection, social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Eagly|first1=Alice. H.|last2=Wood|first2=Wendy|year=1999|title=The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social roles|journal=American Psychologist|volume=54|issue=6|pages=408–423|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.408}}</ref>
It is thought that a trade-off or equilibrium is reached, in regard to what each gender brings to a
=== The rational choice model in heterosexual age disparity in sexual relationships ===
The [[rational choice]] model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (
== Age-hypogamy in heterosexual relationships ==
Age-hypogamy defines a
Older female–younger male relationships are increasingly researched by social scientists.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Jurva|first=Raisa|title=Independence and vulnerability|date=2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315107318-9|work=Affective Inequalities in Intimate Relationships|pages=127–140|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315107318-9|isbn=978-1-315-10731-8|s2cid=158896340|access-date=2021-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=McKenzie|first=Lara|title=Age-Dissimilar Couples and Romantic Relationships: Ageless Love?|date=2015|url=https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781137446763|work=|pages=|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-349-49609-9|access-date=2021-08-05}}</ref><ref name="chasingcougar">{{Cite journal|last=Alarie|first=Milaine|date=2019|title="They're the Ones Chasing the Cougar": Relationship Formation in the Context of Age-Hypogamous Intimate Relationships|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0891243219839670|journal=Gender & Society|volume=33|issue=3|pages=463–485|doi=10.1177/0891243219839670|s2cid=151245151|issn=0891-2432}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alarie|first=Milaine|date=2019|title=Sleeping With Younger Men: Women's Accounts of Sexual Interplay in Age-Hypogamous Intimate Relationships|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1574704|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=57|issue=3|pages=322–334|doi=10.1080/00224499.2019.1574704|pmid=30793951|s2cid=73505682|issn=0022-4499}}</ref> Slang terms such as "cougar" have been used in films, TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates. The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced, middle-aged, white, affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non-commitment arrangement between the partners.<ref name="kak2012">{{Cite journal|last=Kaklamanidou|first=N.|year=2012|title=Pride and prejudice: Celebrity versus fictional cougars|journal=Celebrity Studies|volume=3|pages=78–89|doi=10.1080/19392397.2012.644722|s2cid=191619191}}</ref>
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There may be many reasons why age-hypogamous relationships have been less frequent until recently''.'' Sexual double standards in society, in particular, may account for their rarity.<ref name=":2" /> In many contexts, aging in women is seen to be associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Friedman|first1=A.|last2=Weinberg|first2=H.|last3=Pines|first3=A.M.|year=1998|title=Sexuality and motherhood: Mutually exclusive in perception of women|journal=Sex Roles|volume=38|issue=9/10|pages=781–800|doi=10.1023/a:1018873114523|s2cid=141151257}}</ref>
There is debate in the literature as to what leads to age-hypogamy in
[[File:Emmanuel et Brigitte Macron (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[French President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] and his wife [[Brigitte Macron|Brigitte]]. The couple married in 2007; at the time he was 30 years old and she 54, with a 24-year age-hypogamous gap between the pair.
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<!-- [[Rule of seven]] links here -->
[[File:Half-age-plus-seven-relationship-rule.svg|thumb|right|Graph of the half-age-plus-seven rule]]
One
Although the provenance of the rule is unclear, it is sometimes said to have originated in France.<ref name="Rodale" /> The rule appears in [[John Fox Jr.]]'s 1903 novel ''[[The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come (novel)|The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come]]'',<ref name="Fox1903">{{cite book|author=John Fox|url=https://archive.org/details/littleshepherdk00yohngoog|title=The little shepherd of Kingdom Come|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=1903|page=[https://archive.org/details/littleshepherdk00yohngoog/page/n241 222]|access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> in American newspapers in 1931 attributed to [[Maurice Chevalier]],<ref>"Maurice Chevalier says....plus seven years". ''Detroit News'' item reprinted in ''Oakland'' (CA) ''News'', 27 August 1931.</ref> and in ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]],'' attributed to [[Elijah Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Malcolm X & Alex Haley|url=https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofm00xmal|title=The Autobiography of Malcolm X|publisher=New York, Grove Press|year=1965|page=[https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofm00xmal/page/229 229]|url-access=registration}}</ref>
In many early sources, the rule
A 2000 study found that the rule was fairly accurate at describing the minimum age of a woman that a man would marry or date. However, the rule was not found to be descriptive of the minimum age of a man that a woman would marry or date, nor (by reversing the formula) of the maximum age that either sex would marry or date.<ref name=didonato>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/meet-catch-and-keep/201405/the-half-your-age-plus-seven-rule-does-it-really-work|title=The Half-Your-Age-Plus-Seven Rule: Does It Really Work? |magazine= Psychology Today|date=2014 |access-date=5 July 2014}}</ref>
This rule implies that
== Slang terms (heterosexual) ==
{{redirect|Toy boy}}
{{see also|List of age-related terms with negative connotations}}
<!-- [[Sugar daddy (slang term)]] and [[sugar mama]] redirect here -->
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{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Disparity In Sexual Relationships}}
[[Category:Sexuality and age]]
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